Adoption can have profound psychological and emotional effects on adoptees that can last throughout their lives. Not every adoptee will experience all these challenges. However, research has consistently shown that there are potential harms associated with being adopted. This is especially true in cases where the adoption was closed or transracial. Harms are also present if it involved secrecy or loss of connection to identity.
1. Loss of Identity and Roots
Adoptees often experience a deep sense of loss stemming from being separated from their biological family and culture. This can affect their self-identity and sense of belonging.
- Verrier (1993) calls this the “primal wound”, an early trauma resulting from the severing of the bond between mother and infant. This can lead to lifelong issues with trust, self-worth, and identity.
- Studies have shown that adoptees are overrepresented in mental health treatment settings. They often present with identity confusion or feelings of not fitting in (Brodzinsky, 2011).
2. Adoption-Related Trauma and Attachment Issues
Separation from the birth mother—even at birth—can be experienced as trauma by the adoptee, affecting emotional development and attachment.
- Applegate and Bellow (2005) note that adoptees may experience attachment disruptions, even in stable adoptive families.
- This early loss may interfere with the formation of secure attachment relationships. This is especially true when adoptive parents are unaware or unprepared for the trauma involved.
3. Increased Risk of Mental Health Disorders
Numerous studies show that adoptees are more likely than non-adopted peers to experience a range of mental health challenges. These challenges include depression, anxiety and suicidal ideation.
- Adoptees are 2–4 times more likely to attempt suicide than non-adopted individuals (Keyes et al., 2013).
- Higher rates of substance use, externalizing behaviors and ADHD have also been documented (Juffer & van IJzendoorn, 2005).
4. Secrecy, Shame and Stigma
Adoptees—particularly those adopted in eras like the Baby Scoop Era—were often not informed they were adopted. They were encouraged to suppress curiosity about their origins. This led to feelings of shame and confusion.
- Baden (2016) discusses how secrecy in adoption contributes to shame and internalized stigma, especially in transracial and transcultural adoptions.
5. Complicated Grief and Loyalty Conflicts
Adoptees may struggle with ambiguous loss. They grieve birth families they never knew or weren’t allowed to know. They also face loyalty conflicts between adoptive and birth families.
- Boss (1999) introduced the concept of ambiguous loss. This concept applies to many adoptees. They feel the loss of a biological family that still exists but is inaccessible.
- These unresolved feelings can manifest in adulthood as difficulty with relationships and trust.
6. Ethnic and Racial Identity Confusion (especially in transracial adoptions)
Adoptees raised in families of a different race may experience racial identity confusion. They may have a lack of cultural connection. They could also face discrimination that their adoptive families are unprepared to navigate.
- Lee (2003) found that transracial adoptees often experience isolation and marginalization in both the adoptive and birth cultures.
7. Late Discovery Adoptee Trauma
For those who discover their adoption later in life, the experience can be overwhelming. Often, DNA testing reveals this unexpected truth. The shock and sense of betrayal can be especially traumatic.
- Grotevant et al. (2022) found that late discovery adoptees report elevated distress, including betrayal, disorientation and identity confusion.
Summary Table of Harms
| Harm | Description | Key Source |
|---|---|---|
| Loss of Identity | Confusion over personal/family roots | Verrier (1993), Brodzinsky (2011) |
| Adoption Trauma | Early separation can cause attachment issues | Applegate & Bellow (2005) |
| Mental Health Risks | Higher rates of depression, suicide, ADHD | Keyes et al. (2013), Juffer & van IJzendoorn (2005) |
| Secrecy and Shame | Suppression of adoption truth causes shame | Baden (2016) |
| Grief and Conflict | Ambiguous loss and divided loyalty | Boss (1999) |
| Racial Identity Issues | Disconnection from racial/ethnic background | Lee (2003) |
| Late Discovery Trauma | Identity crisis from unexpected discovery | Grotevant et al. (2022) |
Verrier, N. N. (1993). The primal wound: Understanding the adopted child. Baltimore: Gateway Press.
Brodzinsky, D. M. (2011). Children’s understanding of adoption: Developmental and clinical implications. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42(2), 200–207. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022415
Applegate, J. S., & Bellow, G. M. (2005). The child and adolescent therapist: Psychodynamic strategies. Pearson Education.
Keyes, M. A., Malone, S. M., Sharma, A., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2013). Risk of suicide attempt in adopted and nonadopted offspring. Pediatrics, 132(4), 639–646. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-3251
Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2005). Behavior problems and mental health referrals of international adoptees. JAMA, 293(20), 2501–2515. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.293.20.2501
Baden, A. L. (2016). “Do you know your real parents?” and other adoption microaggressions. In G. N. Hall & S. R. Livingston (Eds.), Adoption in the United States: A reference handbook (pp. 95–110). ABC-CLIO.
Boss, P. (1999). Ambiguous loss: Learning to live with unresolved grief. Harvard University Press.
Lee, R. M. (2003). The transracial adoption paradox: History, research, and counseling implications of cultural socialization. The Counseling Psychologist, 31(6), 711–744. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000003258087
Grotevant, H. D., Von Korff, L., & Kohler, J. K. (2022). Identity development in adoptees across the life span: Findings from the Minnesota/Texas Adoption Research Project. Adoption Quarterly, 25(2), 137–160.
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